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i would like to just point out that this page should be composed of concise and accurate notes on things such as who when where what why. there is no point of maintaining this page if people are just going to copy and paste wikipedia articles.

Causes of the Scientific Revolution The expansion of trade. Merchants undertook sea voyages and had navigational problems. These problems had to be solved and, as a result, there appeared scientific thought and research for finding possible solutions.

Medieval Universities. The philosophical talks and ancient philosophers’ studies, such as Aristotle and William Ockham, aroused interest and caused the thought.

The Renaissance was a period of great cultural development in Western Europe. It started in the 14th century. Leonardo da Vinci and Plato were interested in Mathematics. Thus, people became interested in this discipline too, because of the influence of great masters. The most significant changes occurred in biology (blood circulation study), astronomy (invention of a new universe model), chemistry (discovery elements of nature) and physics (invention of laws of gravitation and motion).

The progress of logic and knowledge of the physical world during the Scientific Revolution was constantly at odds with the oppositional force of religion and mysticism. How were average Europeans, and the scientists themselves, affected by the dilemma created by these forces? In the lives of the impoverished masses, stability was of the utmost importance. In the face of the instability and change threatened by advancement of science, common Europeans often turned to the Church for guidance.  The combination of the influence of the Church and the traditions which had been passed down for hundreds of years produced an attitude of mysticism that seemed to answer all of the difficult questions of everyday life. Events in the natural world occurred not because of the interaction of mechanical forces but because of the influence of the positioning of the planets. This was a convenient and well-ingrained belief system. In fact, this belief system was so ingrained that even scientists themselves often fell prey to it  I.e. Johannes Kepler was convinced that the universe had to be arranged according to some grand scheme, and that the teachings of astrology were largely correct.  In keeping with these ancient beliefs, Kepler searched for a simple geometric model of the universe, largely ignoring the evidence to the contrary. Kepler's was a common dilemma faced by the thinkers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The ancient traditions exercised a strong pull on many scientists, who often allowed the supposed authorities of the past, or even simply the spirit of the past, to cloud their judgment and limit the progress made by their work. How did the scientific view regarding authority change during the Scientific Revolution? During the  [|Middle Ages], science was undertaken more often in the library than in the laboratory. Even Nicolas Copernicus was content to synthesize the ideas and records of others rather than to directly collect and test his own data. However, during the later sixteenth century, attitudes toward additional authority were changing. Men were no longer content to rely on ancient authority for the truth. Instead, they sought to do their own experimentation and observation. Nowhere was this more true than in the Royal Society. The society instituted the method of scientific inquiry most unfavorable to the persistence of dogmatism: laboratory experimentation. To quote past authority was useless, and frowned upon. The crest of the Royal Society bears the motto Nullius in verba ('On the word of no man'). This motto expresses the demand for tangible evidence, for repeatable experimentation, which created the spirit of science, as we know it today. <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Three laws of planetary motion: <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">1. The movement of the planets is a regular elliptical orbit, with the sun as a focus <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">2. Planets move in a velocity in which equal areas are swept out in equal times <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">3. The square of the period of the orbit of a planet is proportional to the cube of the planet’s mean distance from the sun.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Royal Society **<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';"> - The Royal Society of London brought together the greatest minds of the region in efforts to advance science through cooperation. The Royal Society of London, and other scientific societies that grew up in Europe during the later seventeenth century, contributed greatly to the scientific progress made during that period.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Doctrine of Uniformity **<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';"> - The doctrine of uniformity was an enormous step in the quest to integrate physics and astronomy. Developed by Galileo in his //Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World,// the doctrine of uniformity states that corresponding causes produce corresponding affects throughout the universe. Thus, terrestrial physics may be used to explain the motion of heavenly bodies.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Geocentric **<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';"> - The term geocentric describes the theory on the organization of the universe presented by Ptolemy of ancient Greece, and incorporated into the Aristotelian system, which claims that the earth is the center of the solar system and that the sun and other planets orbit around it.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Heliocentric **<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';"> - The term heliocentric describes the correct theory, first posed by Nicolas Copernicus, that the Earth is simply one of several planets which orbit the sun.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Francis Bacon **<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';"> - Bacon (1561-1626) was one of the great philosophers of the Scientific Revolution. His thoughts on logic and ethics in science and his ideas on the cooperation and interaction of the various fields of science, presented in his work //Novum Organum,// have remained influential in the scientific world to this day.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Galileo Galilei **<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';"> - Galileo (1564-1642) was the most successful scientist of the Scientific Revolution, save only Isaac Newton. He studied physics, specifically the laws of gravity and motion, and invented the telescope and microscope. Galileo eventually combined his laws of physics with the observations he made with his telescope to defend the heliocentric Copernican view of the universe and refute the Aristotelian system in his 1630 masterwork, //Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World.// Upon its publication, he was censored by the Catholic Church and sentenced to house arrest in 1633, where he remained until his death in 1642.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Johannes Kepler **<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';"> - Kepler (1571-1630) studied the orbits of the planets and sought to discern some grand scheme that defined the structure of the universe according to simple geometry. Though he was unable to do accomplish his goal, he did come up with the laws of planetary motion, which explained the orbital properties of planets, and factored extensively into Isaac Newton's later work.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">All heavens are bound in a single mathematical relationship. Universe was a lawful mechanical system, expressed in mathematics. The model put forth by Copernicus acquired greater status.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Isaac Newton **<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';"> - Perhaps the most influential scientist of all time, Newton (1642-1727) took the current theories on astronomy a step further and formulated an accurate comprehensive model of the workings of the universe based on the law of universal gravitation. Newton explained his theories in the 1687 revolutionary work //Philosophia Naturalis Principia Mathematica,// often called simply the //Principia.// This work also went along way toward developing calculus.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Ptolemy and Aristotle’s work with an overlay of Christian perceptions were the basis of old views of cosmos. <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">10 heavenly spheres revolved around the immobile Earth and to each sphere were attached heavenly bodies that moved with them. The higher the sphere the more perfect it was and the last sphere was the home of God. The geographical centre was Jerusalem, the holy city. <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Humans had special relationship with God, so they were at the centre of the universe. <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Proposed the first substantive challenge to medieval cosmology, which had become very complex by the fifteenth century // <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies (1543) //<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">- Ptolemaic model was wrong: cosmos is ** heliocentric (sun-centred) **rather than ** geocentric (Earth-centred). ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">This system was a hypothesis and it did not provide quantities of evidence from observation to support its claims. Copernicus’s work was controversial. <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';"> ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Natural Rights (from // Two Treatises of Government 1690) // ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Locke believed that humans, in a “state of nature (a time when there was no society or civilization)” are governed by law of nature (reason teaches all mankind that everyone is equal and independent and no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions.   <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">However, Locke believed that over time, the state of nature would become unsatisfactory and people would become quarrelsome and acquisitive.    <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">They would need a system of government that would guarantee life, freedom, and protection of property; and in establishing a sovereign authority, people retained their ** natural rights, **which they had in the state of nature.   <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">People could not alienate their life, liberty, and property and government existed in order to protect these rights, and therefore, only limited powers were to be given to it. <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Social contract was made between individuals to establish an authority and then a contract between the governing authority and the people were made to limit the power of the government. <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">This ultimately advanced the doctrine of ** civil liberty **.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Copernicus (1473-1543) **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">Circular motion **<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow','sans-serif';">—the motion of the spheres was seen as circular, or perfect.
 * more to follow. Made some of the notes by hand in class, so when I get them, I will add more to the page.

=Sooo.= Intellectual Elements: (add your stuff underneath)

History Notes on Intellectual (1555-1648) John Locke (pronounced [|/ˈlɒk/]; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704), widely known as the //Father of// [|//Liberalism//],[|[2]][|[3]][|[4]] was an [|English][|philosopher] and [|physician] regarded as one of the most influential of [|Enlightenment] thinkers. Considered one of the first of the [|British][|empiricists], following the tradition of [|Francis Bacon], he is equally important to [|social contract] theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of [|epistemology] and [|political philosophy]. His writings influenced [|Voltaire] and [|Rousseau], many [|Scottish Enlightenment]thinkers, as well as the [|American revolutionaries]. His contributions to [|classical republicanism] and [|liberal theory] are reflected in the[|American] [|Declaration of Independence].[|[5]] Locke Says that and object has certain inherent qualities distinct from perception of it, qualities that it would have even if it were not perceived. **The primary Qualities**. Size, shape, weight. 3 Factors involved in perception: Perceiver, knower, the entity or object.
 * (Ilya) ___**
 * Locke**
 * Secondary qualities.** Color, Smell, texture, taste. These qualities are not within the object itself. We make them up, we get the sensation of them.
 * Sense Data** are the images or sensory impressions, immediate contents of sensory experience. It is not the outer object that is present in the consciousness.

**<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Thomas Hobbes ** <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">(5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679), in some older texts **Thomas Hobbs of Malmsbury**, [|[1]] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">was an [|English] [|philosopher], best known today for his work on [|political philosophy]. His 1651 book [|//Leviathan//] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of [|social contract] theory. [|[2]] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Hobbes was a champion of [|absolutism for the sovereign] but he also developed some of the fundamentals of European [|liberal thought]: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between [|civil society] and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid. [|[3]] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 18pt; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">Hobbes also contributed to a diverse array of fields, including [|history], [|geometry], physics of [|gases], [|theology], [|ethics], general philosophy, and [|political science]. His account of human nature as self-interested cooperation has proved to be an enduring theory in the field of [|philosophical anthropology]. He was one of the key founders of [|materialism] in philosophy.
 * Hobbes**

**<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">René Descartes ** <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">(French pronunciation: [|[ʁəne dekaʁt]]; 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) ([|Latinized] form: //Renatus Cartesius//; [|adjectival form]: "Cartesian") [|[2]] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">was a [|French philosopher], [|mathematician], [|physicist], and writer who spent most of his adult life in the [|Dutch Republic]. He has been dubbed the "Father of Modern Philosophy", and much subsequent [|Western philosophy] is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day. In particular, his [|//Meditations on First Philosophy//] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Descartes' influence in mathematics is also apparent; the [|Cartesian coordinate system]—allowing geometric shapes to be expressed in algebraic equations—was named after him. He is credited as the father of [|analytical geometry]. Descartes was also one of the key figures in the [|Scientific Revolution]. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Descartes frequently sets his views apart from those of his predecessors. In the opening section of the [|//Passions of the Soul//]<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">, a treatise on the [|Early Modern] version of what are now commonly called emotions, Descartes goes so far as to assert that he will write on this topic "as if no one had written on these matters before". Many elements of his philosophy have precedents in late [|Aristotelianism], the revived [|Stoicism]of the 16th century, or in earlier philosophers like [|St. Augustine]. In his natural philosophy, he differs from the [|Schools] on two major points: First, he rejects the analysis of [|corporeal substance] into matter and form; second, he rejects any appeal to [|ends]—divine or natural—in explaining natural phenomena. [|[3]] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">In his [|theology], he insists on the absolute freedom of God’s act of creation. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Descartes was a major figure in 17th-century continental [|rationalism], later advocated by [|Baruch Spinoza] and [|Gottfried Leibniz], and opposed by the [|empiricist] school of thought consisting of [|Hobbes], [|Locke], [|Berkeley], [|Jean-Jacques Rousseau], and [|Hume]. Leibniz, Spinoza and Descartes were all well versed in mathematics as well as philosophy, and Descartes and Leibniz contributed greatly to science as well. As the inventor of the [|Cartesian coordinate system], Descartes founded [|analytic geometry], the bridge between algebra and geometry, crucial to the discovery of [|infinitesimal calculus] and [|analysis]. He is perhaps best known for the philosophical statement " [|//Cogito ergo sum//]<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">" ([|French]: //<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Je pense, donc je suis //<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">; [|English]: //I think, therefore I am;// or //I am thinking, therefore I exist// or //I do think, therefore I do exist//), found in part IV of [|//Discourse on the Method//] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">(1637 – written in French but with inclusion of "Cogito ergo sum") and §7 of part I of [|//Principles of Philosophy//] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">(1644 – written in Latin).
 * Descartes**

**//<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">ogito ergo sum //** <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">([|French]: **//Je pense donc je suis//**; [|English]: **//I think, therefore I am//**), often mistakenly stated as //<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Dubito ergo cogito ergo sum // <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">(English: "I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am"), [|[1]] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">is a [|philosophical] [|Latin] statement used by [|René Descartes], which became a fundamental element of [|Western philosophy]. The simple meaning of the phrase is that if someone wonders whether or not he exists, that is, in and of itself, proof that he does exist (because, at the very least, there is an "I" who does the thinking). [|[2]] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">It forms the bedrock for all knowledge, because, while all things can be questioned as to whether they are from the realm of reality or from some figment of imagination (a dream, influence of a demon, etc.), the very act of doubting one's own existence serves as proof of the reality of one's own existence. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 18pt; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">A common mistake is that people take the statement as proof that they, as a human person, exist. However, it is a severely limited conclusion that does nothing to prove that one's own body exists, let alone anything else that is perceived in the physical universe. It only proves that one's mind exists (that part of an individual that observes oneself doing the doubting). It does not rule out other possibilities, such as waking up to find oneself to be a [|butterfly who had dreamed] of having lived a human life. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Descartes's original statement was "Je pense donc je suis," from his [|//Discourse on Method//] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">(1637). He wrote it in [|French], not in Latin and thereby reached a wider audience in his country than that of scholars. He uses the Latin "Cogito ergo sum" in the later [|//Principles of Philosophy//] <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">(1644), Part 1, article 7: "Ac proinde hæc cognitio, //ego cogito, ergo sum//, est omnium prima & certissima, quæ cuilibet ordine philosophanti occurrat." ([|English]: "This proposition, //I think, therefore I am//, is the first and the most certain which presents itself to whomever conducts his thoughts in order."). At that time, the argument had become popularly known in the English speaking world as 'the "Cogito Ergo Sum" argument', which is usually shortened to "Cogito" when referring to the principle virtually everywhere else.
 * Gogito Ergo Sum**